Macbeth

Greek philosopher Aristotle's definition of tragedy (c. 330 B.C.) became influential among Renaissance dramatists and literary critics and has continued to guide and shape an understanding of tragedy as a literary form. His theory concentrates on dramatic structure: (1) identifying plot as the most important element, (2) describing the central character as one who is neither wholly good nor wholly evil and whose fall results from an error in judgment, (3) suggesting that the hero eventually realizes his error and its consequences when it is too late to change, and (4) indicating that the audience responds with a combination of fear and pity to a story about a character who elicits their sympathy.

As a skilled artist writing in his own age, Shakespeare did not simply impose Aristotle's earlier classical form on his tragedies, each of which develops its own vision of human devastation. Some aspects of Macbeth even run contrary to Aristotle's ideals. As a psychological tragedy, it emphasizes the interior activity of the mind as much as the outward physical action of plot. It also shifts some attention away from the central hero by including Lady Macbeth as a partner in crime.

Nevertheless, Aristotle's classical theory provides one standard from which to consider Macbeth as a tragic hero. If tragedy cannot rely on a bad man descending into misfortune, then Macbeth must exhibit redeeming qualities, some of which others express on his behalf and some of which he articulates himself in his wrenching struggle between crime and conscience. Although he is blinded by a conviction that the end can justify the means and that good can come of his many evil deeds, eventually he does realize his own folly and the irreversible, devastating consequences of his choices. Finally, too, if tragedy necessitates a response of fear and pity, then Macbeth and Lady Macbeth must generate some sympathy; otherwise the play's ending merely becomes a triumph of good over evil, a celebration that verges on comedy. Simplistic or melodramatic interpretations may encourage this understanding, but Shakespeare invites a much more complex reaction, one that sees in the Macbeths' profoundly dark ambitions -as Aristotle suggests -something of ourselves.

Roman writer Seneca ( 4 B.C.-A.D. 65) also influenced dramatic form in the Renaissance. His Latin plays were studied in Elizabethan schools, were revived on stage, and served as models for many English playwrights. Some Senecan elements that are particularly relevant to Macbeth include (1) violence and sensationalism, (2) the role of the supernatural, especially its darker forces, (3) the presence of ghosts, often associated with a theme of revenge, (4) powerful female characters, and (5) a hero who is morally free to make his own choices, who demonstrates introspection or thoughtful reflection, and who manifests stoicism or courage and a strong will in the face of adversity.

These aspects are reflected in Macbeth. Blood and violence pervade the play in vivid imagery and in murders on and off stage. The supernatural maintains a sinister presence through the witches, Banquo's ghost, and even Lady Macbeth's invocation,

Come, you Spirits
That tend on mortal thoughts, unsex me here,
And fill me, from the crown to the toe, top-full
Of direst cruelty! (1.5.40-43)

Her violence and ambition resemble qualities of Senecan women characters, such as Medea and Clytemnestra. Macbeth is an introspective hero who thinks deeply, whose imagination shapes his goals, and whose conscience condemns him. He is also courageous, "bloody, bold, and resolute" (4.1.79), willing to fight to the death rather than cower before his enemies. Revenge or retribution characterizes the play's conclusion as Macduff stays the murderer of his own children, freeing Scotland from tyranny's cruel yoke. These parallels reflect direct or indirect Senecan influences, indicating Shakespeare's debt to an earlier dramatic tradition.